BOTS EM REDES SOCIAIS
DESAFIOS TEÓRICOS E CONSEQUÊNCIAS PARA AS CIÊNCIAS SOCIAIS
Palavras-chave:
Redes Sociais, Bots Políticos, Ciências Sociais, Revisão Sistemática da Literatura
Resumo
Com o crescente papel das redes sociais, crescem discussões sobre as implicações sociais e políticas de bots. O presente trabalho buscou sistematizar o que cientistas sociais trabalhando interdisciplinarmente com cientistas da computação desenvolveram sobre os desafios deste fenômeno para o campo. Foi realizada uma revisão sistemática da literatura e análise bibliométrica com um corpus de 442 artigos, e uma análise qualitativa dos resumos dos 40 artigos mais citados, que fundamentaram uma discussão substantiva sobre o fenômeno. Os resultados são apresentados na forma de redes bibliométricas geradas com o VOSViewer e na forma de conclusões em dimensões teórica, ética, normativa e metodológica. Entre os resultados, aponta-se a necessidade de clareza sobre limites das tecnologias de bots, sua autonomia e efeitos concretos na comunicação com usuários humanos antes de apontar diagnósticos e prognósticos catastróficos. A falta de métodos confiáveis de detecção e de desenhos de pesquisa que deem conta de dados em tempo real são alguns dos obstáculos. Bots distorcem o debate público em diversas frentes: simulando a existência de comunidades virtuais forjadas; reverberando discursos de ódio e notícias falsas ou informações de baixa qualidade; sentimentalmente, mobilizando afetos dos usuários, gerando ambientes de atrito e polarização; e por meio de redes de influência, impulsionando personalidades ligadas à extrema-direita e grupos de ódio, e ofuscando mídias tradicionais e experts na plataforma. As ciências sociais são cruciais para compreensão de como bots têm transformado o comportamento de indivíduos/cidadãos, na proposição de novos projetos de lei que dêem conta das implicações legais ainda desconhecidas do uso de bots e na responsabilização de empresas de plataforma neste fenômeno essencialmente interdisciplinar.Referências
AKHREMENKO, A. S.; STUKAL, D. K.; PETROV, A. P. Network vs message in protest diffusion on social media: theoretical and data analytics perspectives. Polis. Political Studies, v. 2, n. 2, p. 73-91, 2020.
ASSENMACHER, Dennis et al. Demystifying social bots: On the intelligence of automated social media actors. Social Media+ Society, v. 6, n. 3, p. 2056305120939264, 2020.
BASTOS, Marco T.; MERCEA, Dan. The Brexit botnet and user-generated hyperpartisan news. Social science computer review, v. 37, n. 1, p. 38-54, 2019.
BESKOW, David M.; CARLEY, Kathleen M. Its all in a name: detecting and labeling bots by their name. Computational and mathematical organization theory, v. 25, p. 24-35, 2019.
BESSI, Alessandro; FERRARA, Emilio. Social bots distort the 2016 US Presidential election online discussion. First monday, v. 21, n. 11-7, 2016.
CAMPOS-DOMÍNGUEZ, Eva; GARCÍA-OROSA, Berta. Comunicación algorítmica en los partidos políticos: automatización de producción y circulación de mensajes. Profesional de la Información, v. 27, n. 4, p. 769-777, 2018.
CASTELLS, Manuel. Redes de indignação e esperança: movimentos sociais na era da internet. Editora Schwarcz-Companhia das Letras, 2017.
CLÉMENT, Maxime; GUITTON, Matthieu J. Interacting with bots online: Users’ reactions to actions of automated programs in Wikipedia. Computers in Human Behavior, v. 50, p. 66-75, 2015.
DANTAS, M., MOURA, D., RAULINO, G. & ORMAY, L . O valor da informação: de como o capital se apropria do trabalho social na era do espetáculo e da internet. Boitempo Editorial, 2022
DE PAULA, Lorena Tavares; MICHALSKI, Rafael. Os bots de disseminação de informação na conjuntura das campanhas presidenciais de 2018 no Brasil. Múltiplos Olhares em Ciência da Informação, v. 9, n. 1, 2019.
EDWARDS, Chad. Is that a bot running the social media feed? Testing the differences in perceptions of communication quality for a human agent and a bot agent on Twitter. Computers in Human Behavior, v. 33, p. 372-376, 2014.
FERNANDES, S. Sintomas mórbidos: a encruzilhada da esquerda brasileira. Autonomia Literária, 2019
FERNQUIST, Johan; KAATI, Lisa; SCHROEDER, Ralph. Political bots and the Swedish general election. In: 2018 ieee international conference on intelligence and security informatics (isi). IEEE, 2018. p. 124-129.
FERRARA, Emilio; CRESCI, Stefano; LUCERI, Luca. Misinformation, manipulation, and abuse on social media in the era of COVID-19. Journal of Computational Social Science, v. 3, p. 271-277, 2020.
FERRARA, Emilio. Bots, elections, and social media: a brief overview. Disinformation, Misinformation, and Fake News in Social Media: Emerging Research Challenges and Opportunities, p. 95-114, 2020.
FLYNN, Daniel J.; NYHAN, Brendan; REIFLER, Jason. The nature and origins of misperceptions: Understanding false and unsupported beliefs about politics. Political Psychology, v. 38, p. 127-150, 2017.
FORD, Heather; HUTCHINSON, Jonathon. Newsbots that mediate journalist and audience relationships. Digital Journalism, v. 7, n. 8, p. 1013-1031, 2019.
GORWA, Robert; GUILBEAULT, Douglas. Unpacking the social media bot: A typology to guide research and policy. Policy & Internet, v. 12, n. 2, p. 225-248, 2020.
GRIMME, Christian; ASSENMACHER, Dennis; ADAM, Lena. Changing perspectives: Is it sufficient to detect social bots?. In: Social Computing and Social Media. User Experience and Behavior: 10th International Conference, SCSM 2018, Held as Part of HCI International 2018, Las Vegas, NV, USA, July 15-20, 2018, Proceedings, Part I 10. Springer International Publishing, 2018. p. 445-461.
HAGEN, Loni et al. Rise of the machines? Examining the influence of social bots on a political discussion network. Social Science Computer Review, v. 40, n. 2, p. 264-287, 2022.
HASLER, Béatrice S.; TUCHMAN, Peleg; FRIEDMAN, Doron. Virtual research assistants: Replacing human interviewers by automated avatars in virtual worlds. Computers in Human Behavior, v. 29, n. 4, p. 1608-1616, 2013.
HEPP, Andreas. Artificial companions, social bots and work bots: communicative robots as research objects of media and communication studies. Media, Culture & Society, v. 42, n. 7-8, p. 1410-1426, 2020.
HOWARD, Philip N. Digitizing the social contract: Producing American political culture in the age of new media. The Communication Review, v. 6, n. 3, p. 213-245, 2003.
HOWARD, Philip N.; WOOLLEY, Samuel; CALO, Ryan. Algorithms, bots, and political communication in the US 2016 election: The challenge of automated political communication for election law and administration. Journal of information technology & politics, v. 15, n. 2, p. 81-93, 2018.
JOHNSON, James. Delegating strategic decision-making to machines: Dr. Strangelove Redux?. Journal of Strategic Studies, v. 45, n. 3, p. 439-477, 2022.
JOHNSON, Jessica. The self-radicalization of white men:“Fake news” and the affective networking of paranoia. Communication Culture & Critique, v. 11, n. 1, p. 100-115, 2018.
KELLER, Franziska B. et al. Political astroturfing on Twitter: How to coordinate a disinformation campaign. Political communication, v. 37, n. 2, p. 256-280, 2020.
KELLER, Tobias R.; KLINGER, Ulrike. Social bots in election campaigns: Theoretical, empirical, and methodological implications. Political Communication, v. 36, n. 1, p. 171-189, 2019.
LARSSON, Anders Olof; HALLVARD, Moe. Bots or journalists? News sharing on Twitter. 2015.
LIU, Xia. A big data approach to examining social bots on Twitter. Journal of Services Marketing, v. 33, n. 4, p. 369-379, 2019.
LOKOT, Tetyana; DIAKOPOULOS, Nicholas. News Bots: Automating news and information dissemination on Twitter. Digital Journalism, v. 4, n. 6, p. 682-699, 2016.
MARÉCHAL, Nathalie. Automation, algorithms, and politics| when bots tweet: Toward a normative framework for bots on social networking sites (feature). International Journal of Communication, v. 10, p. 10, 2016.
MOROZOV, Evgeny. Big tech. Ubu Editora LTDA-ME, 2018.
MORSTATTER, Fred et al. A new approach to bot detection: striking the balance between precision and recall. In: 2016 IEEE/ACM International Conference on Advances in Social Networks Analysis and Mining (ASONAM). IEEE, 2016. p. 533-540.
MUNGER, Kevin. The limited value of non-replicable field experiments in contexts with low temporal validity. Social Media+ Society, v. 5, n. 3, p. 2056305119859294, 2019.
MURTHY, Dhiraj et al. Automation, algorithms, and politics| Bots and political influence: A sociotechnical investigation of social network capital. International journal of communication, v. 10, p. 20, 2016.
PASQUALE, Frank. The black box society: The secret algorithms that control money and information. Harvard University Press, 2015.
QI, SiHua; ALKULAIB, Lulwah; BRONIATOWSKI, David A. Detecting and characterizing bot-like behavior on Twitter. In: Social, Cultural, and Behavioral Modeling: 11th International Conference, SBP-BRiMS 2018, Washington, DC, USA, July 10-13, 2018, Proceedings 11. Springer International Publishing, 2018. p. 228-232.
ROSS, Björn et al. Are social bots a real threat? An agent-based model of the spiral of silence to analyse the impact of manipulative actors in social networks. European Journal of Information Systems, v. 28, n. 4, p. 394-412, 2019.
SANOVICH, Sergey; STUKAL, Denis; TUCKER, Joshua A. Turning the virtual tables: Government strategies for addressing online opposition with an application to Russia. Comparative Politics, v. 50, n. 3, p. 435-482, 2018.
SCANNELL, Denise et al. COVID-19 vaccine discourse on Twitter: A content analysis of persuasion techniques, sentiment and mis/disinformation. Journal of health communication, v. 26, n. 7, p. 443-459, 2021.
SINGER, A. Rebellion in Brazil. New Left Review, n. 85, p. 19-37, 2014
SRNICEK, Nick. Platform capitalism. John Wiley & Sons, 2017.
STIEGLITZ, Stefan et al. Do social bots (still) act different to humans?–Comparing metrics of social bots with those of humans. In: Social Computing and Social Media. Human Behavior: 9th International Conference, SCSM 2017, Held as Part of HCI International 2017, Vancouver, BC, Canada, July 9-14, 2017, Proceedings, Part I 9. Springer International Publishing, 2017. p. 379-395.
STUKAL, Denis et al. For whom the bot tolls: A neural networks approach to measuring political orientation of Twitter bots in Russia. Sage Open, v. 9, n. 2, p. 2158244019827715, 2019.
UYHENG, Joshua; CARLEY, Kathleen M. Bots and online hate during the COVID-19 pandemic: case studies in the United States and the Philippines. Journal of computational social science, v. 3, p. 445-468, 2020.
VAN ECK, Nees Jan; WALTMAN, Ludo. Visualizing bibliometric networks. Measuring scholarly impact: Methods and practice, p. 285-320, 2014.
VAROL, Onur; ULUTURK, Ismail. Journalists on Twitter: self-branding, audiences, and involvement of bots. Journal of Computational Social Science, v. 3, n. 1, p. 83-101, 2020.
WILSON-NASH, Carolyn; GOODE, Amy; CURRIE, Alice. Introducing the socialbot: a novel touchpoint along the young adult customer journey. European Journal of Marketing, v. 54, n. 10, p. 2621-2643, 2020.
WOOLLEY, Samuel C.; HOWARD, Philip N. Political communication, computational propaganda, and autonomous agents: Introduction. International journal of Communication, v. 10, 2016.
YAN, Harry Yaojun et al. Asymmetrical perceptions of partisan political bots. New Media & Society, v. 23, n. 10, p. 3016-3037, 2021.
YANG, Kai-Cheng et al. Scalable and generalizable social bot detection through data selection. In: Proceedings of the AAAI conference on artificial intelligence. 2020. p. 1096-1103.
YANG, Kai‐Cheng et al. Arming the public with artificial intelligence to counter social bots. Human Behavior and Emerging Technologies, v. 1, n. 1, p. 48-61, 2019.
YUAN, Xiaoyi; SCHUCHARD, Ross J.; CROOKS, Andrew T. Examining emergent communities and social bots within the polarized online vaccination debate in Twitter. Social media+ society, v. 5, n. 3, p. 2056305119865465, 2019.
ZERBACK, Thomas; TÖPFL, Florian; KNÖPFLE, Maria. The disconcerting potential of online disinformation: Persuasive effects of astroturfing comments and three strategies for inoculation against them. New media & society, v. 23, n. 5, p. 1080-1098, 2021.
ZUBOFF, Shoshana. Big other: surveillance capitalism and the prospects of an information civilization. Journal of information technology, v. 30, n. 1, p. 75-89, 2015.
ASSENMACHER, Dennis et al. Demystifying social bots: On the intelligence of automated social media actors. Social Media+ Society, v. 6, n. 3, p. 2056305120939264, 2020.
BASTOS, Marco T.; MERCEA, Dan. The Brexit botnet and user-generated hyperpartisan news. Social science computer review, v. 37, n. 1, p. 38-54, 2019.
BESKOW, David M.; CARLEY, Kathleen M. Its all in a name: detecting and labeling bots by their name. Computational and mathematical organization theory, v. 25, p. 24-35, 2019.
BESSI, Alessandro; FERRARA, Emilio. Social bots distort the 2016 US Presidential election online discussion. First monday, v. 21, n. 11-7, 2016.
CAMPOS-DOMÍNGUEZ, Eva; GARCÍA-OROSA, Berta. Comunicación algorítmica en los partidos políticos: automatización de producción y circulación de mensajes. Profesional de la Información, v. 27, n. 4, p. 769-777, 2018.
CASTELLS, Manuel. Redes de indignação e esperança: movimentos sociais na era da internet. Editora Schwarcz-Companhia das Letras, 2017.
CLÉMENT, Maxime; GUITTON, Matthieu J. Interacting with bots online: Users’ reactions to actions of automated programs in Wikipedia. Computers in Human Behavior, v. 50, p. 66-75, 2015.
DANTAS, M., MOURA, D., RAULINO, G. & ORMAY, L . O valor da informação: de como o capital se apropria do trabalho social na era do espetáculo e da internet. Boitempo Editorial, 2022
DE PAULA, Lorena Tavares; MICHALSKI, Rafael. Os bots de disseminação de informação na conjuntura das campanhas presidenciais de 2018 no Brasil. Múltiplos Olhares em Ciência da Informação, v. 9, n. 1, 2019.
EDWARDS, Chad. Is that a bot running the social media feed? Testing the differences in perceptions of communication quality for a human agent and a bot agent on Twitter. Computers in Human Behavior, v. 33, p. 372-376, 2014.
FERNANDES, S. Sintomas mórbidos: a encruzilhada da esquerda brasileira. Autonomia Literária, 2019
FERNQUIST, Johan; KAATI, Lisa; SCHROEDER, Ralph. Political bots and the Swedish general election. In: 2018 ieee international conference on intelligence and security informatics (isi). IEEE, 2018. p. 124-129.
FERRARA, Emilio; CRESCI, Stefano; LUCERI, Luca. Misinformation, manipulation, and abuse on social media in the era of COVID-19. Journal of Computational Social Science, v. 3, p. 271-277, 2020.
FERRARA, Emilio. Bots, elections, and social media: a brief overview. Disinformation, Misinformation, and Fake News in Social Media: Emerging Research Challenges and Opportunities, p. 95-114, 2020.
FLYNN, Daniel J.; NYHAN, Brendan; REIFLER, Jason. The nature and origins of misperceptions: Understanding false and unsupported beliefs about politics. Political Psychology, v. 38, p. 127-150, 2017.
FORD, Heather; HUTCHINSON, Jonathon. Newsbots that mediate journalist and audience relationships. Digital Journalism, v. 7, n. 8, p. 1013-1031, 2019.
GORWA, Robert; GUILBEAULT, Douglas. Unpacking the social media bot: A typology to guide research and policy. Policy & Internet, v. 12, n. 2, p. 225-248, 2020.
GRIMME, Christian; ASSENMACHER, Dennis; ADAM, Lena. Changing perspectives: Is it sufficient to detect social bots?. In: Social Computing and Social Media. User Experience and Behavior: 10th International Conference, SCSM 2018, Held as Part of HCI International 2018, Las Vegas, NV, USA, July 15-20, 2018, Proceedings, Part I 10. Springer International Publishing, 2018. p. 445-461.
HAGEN, Loni et al. Rise of the machines? Examining the influence of social bots on a political discussion network. Social Science Computer Review, v. 40, n. 2, p. 264-287, 2022.
HASLER, Béatrice S.; TUCHMAN, Peleg; FRIEDMAN, Doron. Virtual research assistants: Replacing human interviewers by automated avatars in virtual worlds. Computers in Human Behavior, v. 29, n. 4, p. 1608-1616, 2013.
HEPP, Andreas. Artificial companions, social bots and work bots: communicative robots as research objects of media and communication studies. Media, Culture & Society, v. 42, n. 7-8, p. 1410-1426, 2020.
HOWARD, Philip N. Digitizing the social contract: Producing American political culture in the age of new media. The Communication Review, v. 6, n. 3, p. 213-245, 2003.
HOWARD, Philip N.; WOOLLEY, Samuel; CALO, Ryan. Algorithms, bots, and political communication in the US 2016 election: The challenge of automated political communication for election law and administration. Journal of information technology & politics, v. 15, n. 2, p. 81-93, 2018.
JOHNSON, James. Delegating strategic decision-making to machines: Dr. Strangelove Redux?. Journal of Strategic Studies, v. 45, n. 3, p. 439-477, 2022.
JOHNSON, Jessica. The self-radicalization of white men:“Fake news” and the affective networking of paranoia. Communication Culture & Critique, v. 11, n. 1, p. 100-115, 2018.
KELLER, Franziska B. et al. Political astroturfing on Twitter: How to coordinate a disinformation campaign. Political communication, v. 37, n. 2, p. 256-280, 2020.
KELLER, Tobias R.; KLINGER, Ulrike. Social bots in election campaigns: Theoretical, empirical, and methodological implications. Political Communication, v. 36, n. 1, p. 171-189, 2019.
LARSSON, Anders Olof; HALLVARD, Moe. Bots or journalists? News sharing on Twitter. 2015.
LIU, Xia. A big data approach to examining social bots on Twitter. Journal of Services Marketing, v. 33, n. 4, p. 369-379, 2019.
LOKOT, Tetyana; DIAKOPOULOS, Nicholas. News Bots: Automating news and information dissemination on Twitter. Digital Journalism, v. 4, n. 6, p. 682-699, 2016.
MARÉCHAL, Nathalie. Automation, algorithms, and politics| when bots tweet: Toward a normative framework for bots on social networking sites (feature). International Journal of Communication, v. 10, p. 10, 2016.
MOROZOV, Evgeny. Big tech. Ubu Editora LTDA-ME, 2018.
MORSTATTER, Fred et al. A new approach to bot detection: striking the balance between precision and recall. In: 2016 IEEE/ACM International Conference on Advances in Social Networks Analysis and Mining (ASONAM). IEEE, 2016. p. 533-540.
MUNGER, Kevin. The limited value of non-replicable field experiments in contexts with low temporal validity. Social Media+ Society, v. 5, n. 3, p. 2056305119859294, 2019.
MURTHY, Dhiraj et al. Automation, algorithms, and politics| Bots and political influence: A sociotechnical investigation of social network capital. International journal of communication, v. 10, p. 20, 2016.
PASQUALE, Frank. The black box society: The secret algorithms that control money and information. Harvard University Press, 2015.
QI, SiHua; ALKULAIB, Lulwah; BRONIATOWSKI, David A. Detecting and characterizing bot-like behavior on Twitter. In: Social, Cultural, and Behavioral Modeling: 11th International Conference, SBP-BRiMS 2018, Washington, DC, USA, July 10-13, 2018, Proceedings 11. Springer International Publishing, 2018. p. 228-232.
ROSS, Björn et al. Are social bots a real threat? An agent-based model of the spiral of silence to analyse the impact of manipulative actors in social networks. European Journal of Information Systems, v. 28, n. 4, p. 394-412, 2019.
SANOVICH, Sergey; STUKAL, Denis; TUCKER, Joshua A. Turning the virtual tables: Government strategies for addressing online opposition with an application to Russia. Comparative Politics, v. 50, n. 3, p. 435-482, 2018.
SCANNELL, Denise et al. COVID-19 vaccine discourse on Twitter: A content analysis of persuasion techniques, sentiment and mis/disinformation. Journal of health communication, v. 26, n. 7, p. 443-459, 2021.
SINGER, A. Rebellion in Brazil. New Left Review, n. 85, p. 19-37, 2014
SRNICEK, Nick. Platform capitalism. John Wiley & Sons, 2017.
STIEGLITZ, Stefan et al. Do social bots (still) act different to humans?–Comparing metrics of social bots with those of humans. In: Social Computing and Social Media. Human Behavior: 9th International Conference, SCSM 2017, Held as Part of HCI International 2017, Vancouver, BC, Canada, July 9-14, 2017, Proceedings, Part I 9. Springer International Publishing, 2017. p. 379-395.
STUKAL, Denis et al. For whom the bot tolls: A neural networks approach to measuring political orientation of Twitter bots in Russia. Sage Open, v. 9, n. 2, p. 2158244019827715, 2019.
UYHENG, Joshua; CARLEY, Kathleen M. Bots and online hate during the COVID-19 pandemic: case studies in the United States and the Philippines. Journal of computational social science, v. 3, p. 445-468, 2020.
VAN ECK, Nees Jan; WALTMAN, Ludo. Visualizing bibliometric networks. Measuring scholarly impact: Methods and practice, p. 285-320, 2014.
VAROL, Onur; ULUTURK, Ismail. Journalists on Twitter: self-branding, audiences, and involvement of bots. Journal of Computational Social Science, v. 3, n. 1, p. 83-101, 2020.
WILSON-NASH, Carolyn; GOODE, Amy; CURRIE, Alice. Introducing the socialbot: a novel touchpoint along the young adult customer journey. European Journal of Marketing, v. 54, n. 10, p. 2621-2643, 2020.
WOOLLEY, Samuel C.; HOWARD, Philip N. Political communication, computational propaganda, and autonomous agents: Introduction. International journal of Communication, v. 10, 2016.
YAN, Harry Yaojun et al. Asymmetrical perceptions of partisan political bots. New Media & Society, v. 23, n. 10, p. 3016-3037, 2021.
YANG, Kai-Cheng et al. Scalable and generalizable social bot detection through data selection. In: Proceedings of the AAAI conference on artificial intelligence. 2020. p. 1096-1103.
YANG, Kai‐Cheng et al. Arming the public with artificial intelligence to counter social bots. Human Behavior and Emerging Technologies, v. 1, n. 1, p. 48-61, 2019.
YUAN, Xiaoyi; SCHUCHARD, Ross J.; CROOKS, Andrew T. Examining emergent communities and social bots within the polarized online vaccination debate in Twitter. Social media+ society, v. 5, n. 3, p. 2056305119865465, 2019.
ZERBACK, Thomas; TÖPFL, Florian; KNÖPFLE, Maria. The disconcerting potential of online disinformation: Persuasive effects of astroturfing comments and three strategies for inoculation against them. New media & society, v. 23, n. 5, p. 1080-1098, 2021.
ZUBOFF, Shoshana. Big other: surveillance capitalism and the prospects of an information civilization. Journal of information technology, v. 30, n. 1, p. 75-89, 2015.
Publicado
2024-03-18
Seção
Artigos
